Hazardous Chemical Classes in the Textile Sector

The textile value chain—from raw fibre cultivation, to wet-processing, finishing, use, and end-of-life—incorporates a wide array of chemical substances. Among these, certain classes pose elevated risks to human health, worker safety, environment and product safety. This article provides a detailed review of (1) heavy metals in textiles, and (2) other key hazardous substance classes (azo dyes / aromatic amines, phthalates, PFAS, biocides/antimicrobials, flame-retardants, solvent-carriers, micro-contaminants) with relevance to textiles. For each class it reviews typical uses within textile systems, hazard mechanisms, regulatory/standard context and implications for textile technologists. The goal is to offer a unified hazard-management lens for the textile technologist, researcher and policy-analyst.

1. Introduction

Textile production remains a chemically-intensive industry, especially in the wet-processing (dyeing, printing, finishing) and coating/lamination phases. The combination of large water throughput, high chemical load, fibre diversity and global supply-chains means that the presence of hazardous substances in textiles is both wide in scope and deep in consequence.

Historically heavy metals have been well-recognised hazards in textiles. However, a broader suite of chemical classes — many persistent, bio-accumulative or toxic — has come under increasing scrutiny. For textile technologists and researchers (such as yourself) this means that chemical-risk management must go beyond single-substance groups and encompass holistic value-chain thinking: material selection, processing, waste-treatment, product use and end-of-life.

This article is structured into two major parts: firstly heavy metals in the textile context; secondly additional key hazardous substance classes. Each section covers use, hazard mechanisms, standards/regulation and implications for the industry.

2. Heavy Metals in the Textile Context

2.1 Use and Entry Pathways

Heavy metals such as chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni) are found in textiles via several pathways:

Metal-complex dyes and pigments: These include dyes where the metal (e.g., Cr, Cu) is part of the chromophore or mordant. Velusamy (2021) notes that textile industries are discharging metals such as Cr(VI), Cd(II), Pb(II) and Zn as part of dye systems. Wiley Online Library
Finishing auxiliaries: Metal salts may be used as catalysts, mordants, flame-retardants or antimicrobial agents.
Raw fibre contamination: Natural fibres may absorb metals from soil/irrigation; recycled textiles may carry legacy metal burdens.
Effluent, sludge and environmental accumulation: Because metals are non-degradable, they persist in wastewater, sludge, soils and sediments around textile clusters (Gupta et al., 2025). PubMed Central

2.2 Hazard Mechanisms & Impacts

Human health: Some heavy metals are carcinogenic (e.g., arsenic, chromium VI), others cause neurological, renal or developmental toxicities (lead, cadmium). For example, Bielak & Marcinkowska (2022) found elevated Cr in leather/textile extracts, posing allergenic and toxic effects. Nature
Dermal/inhalation contact: Metal residues in textile finishes or dyes may migrate under conditions of sweat and friction.
Environmental/ecological: Metals accumulate in soils and aquatic systems, enter food chains, disrupt microbial ecosystems. Al-Tohamy (2022) highlights heavy metals among the core pollutants requiring treatment in dye-laden wastewater. ScienceDirect
Persistence & accumulation: Metals do not degrade; they may transform, but remain hazardous and may remobilise under changing conditions.

2.3 Regulatory / Standard Context

Many certification schemes (e.g., OEKO-TEX® Standard 100) set limits for extractable heavy metals in textiles (e.g., Cr, Cd, Pb) as a measure of consumer safety. Bielak & Marcinkowska (2022) compared extracts from textiles and leathers with OEKO-TEX limits. Nature
Environmental discharge regulations: Effluent containing heavy metals is regulated under national pollution control frameworks.
Industry initiatives: The textile industry’s chemical-management programmes (e.g., ZDHC) include heavy-metal restrictions or elimination.

2.4 Implications for Textile Technologists

Choice of dyes/finishes: Avoid or minimise use of metal-complex dyes if possible; favour alternatives or ensure full documentation of metal content.
Process design: Optimize dye exhaustion, minimise metal-based auxiliaries, recycle wash-waters, treat effluent for metals.
Testing protocols: Routine monitoring of total and extractable metal content in finished goods (especially skin-contact articles) and in process effluent/sludge.
Supply-chain and end-of-life: Ensure incoming fibre, chemicals are certified; plan for eventual disposal or recycling of sludge/solid metal waste.

3. Key Hazardous Substance Classes in Textiles

Beyond heavy metals, several other substance classes present significant hazard profiles in textiles. Below each is described in turn.

3.1 Azo Dyes / Aromatic Amines

Use in Textiles

Azo dyes (–N=N– linkages) are widely used in textile dyeing and printing due to colour range and cost-effectiveness. Pinto et al. (2025) report that many textile dyes, especially azo dyes, contain components that may degrade into aromatic amines (AAs). MDPI

Hazard Mechanisms

Reductive cleavage of certain azo dyes can release aromatic amines which are carcinogenic or mutagenic. (Pinheiro et al., 2004)
Migration/local release: Sweat, friction or microbial action may liberate residual dyes/amine from textile substrate.
Environmental: Azo dye residues persist in effluent, may degrade to AAs, impair aquatic systems.

Regulation / Standards

EU bans on azo dyes that can yield specified aromatic amines under consumer goods legislation.
Analytical standards (e.g., EN 14362-1) exist for detecting aromatic amines in textiles.
Industry restricted-substance lists include azo-derived aromatic amines.

Implications for Textile Technologists

Use certified azo-dyes or avoid problematic ones; ensure supplier disclosures.
Monitor dye cleavage potential and residual amine/azo content.
Consider alternative dye chemistries (e.g., reactive, metal-free) especially for sensitive end-uses (children’s garments, skin-contact textiles).

3.2 Phthalates (Plasticisers)

Use in Textiles

Phthalate esters are plasticisers used in PVC-coated fabrics, plastisol inks, synthetic leather trims, lamination. As migration-prone compounds they are of concern. Rovira et al. (2025) mention elevated risks from phthalates in infant clothing. PubMed

Hazard Mechanisms

Endocrine disruption, reproductive and developmental toxicity have been associated with several phthalates.
Leaching/migration: Since phthalates are not chemically bound, wear, washing or heat may cause migration to skin or effluent.
Cumulative exposure: Especially relevant in children’s wear or accessories.

Regulation / Standards

EU / ECHA restrictions on phthalates (e.g., DEHP, DBP, DIBP, BBP) in many consumer goods.
Textile RSLs and accessory parts increasingly include phthalate limits.

Implications for Textile Technologists

Select phthalate-free plasticisers where possible; review PVC-based trims or prints.
Evaluate migration/leachability data, especially for children’s items.
Design with end-use in mind: low-temperature washes, minimal heat transfer prints to reduce migration.

3.3 PFAS (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances)

Use in Textiles

PFAS are used in water-, oil- and stain-repellent finishes, technical fabrics, upholstery, outdoor gear, carpets. The NRDC review (2021) describes PFAS as “forever chemicals” widely used in textiles. NRDC

Hazard Mechanisms

Environmental persistence, mobility, and bio-accumulation (‘forever chemicals’) create long-term hazard.
Human exposure: via dermal contact, inhalation of treated textiles, release during washing or wear (e.g., into the environment).
Health effects: endocrine disruption, liver damage, immune system effects, possible carcinogenicity (Gaines, 2023) Wiley Online Library

Regulation / Standards

Increasing regulation: Many jurisdictions moving to restrict or phase-out PFAS in textiles (e.g., France).
Industry chemical-management frameworks (MRSLs) include PFAS-free requirements or disclosures.

Implications for Textile Technologists

Reassess water/oil-repellent finishes: PFAS-free alternatives may now achieve required performance.
Lifecycle and circularity: PFAS-treated textiles may impede recycling or create long-term environmental burdens.
Supply-chain documentation: Ensure traceability of finish chemicals, declare PFAS content or absence, engage with certification programmes.

3.4 Biocides / Antimicrobials

Use in Textiles

Antimicrobial finishes (silver, organotin compounds, quaternary ammonium salts) are applied to activewear, sportswear, socks, upholstery to inhibit microbial growth/odour.

Hazard Mechanisms

Toxic to non-target organisms; may contribute to antimicrobial-resistance.
Potential human exposure via skin contact or leaching.
Environmental release: via washing effluent, sludge may carry biocide residues into ecosystems.

Regulation / Standards

Some biocides are regulated under chemical-control regimes (e.g., EU Biocidal Products Regulation).
Textile RSLs are increasingly specifying limits for silver release, organotin compounds.

Implications for Textile Technologists

Evaluate need: Are antimicrobial finishes essential for product performance or can design/usage reduce need?
Choose lower-hazard alternatives, monitor release/leaching of biocide from textile.
Manage laundering/disposal: specify user guidelines (wash less frequently, lower temperature) to reduce release.

3.5 Flame-Retardants

Use in Textiles

Used in nightwear, upholstery, protective clothing, interior fabrics. Many older flame-retardants are halogenated or heavy-metal containing (e.g., antimony-based).

Hazard Mechanisms

Many halogenated FRs are persistent organic pollutants (POPs), bio-accumulative, endocrine disruptors, neurotoxic.
During use/wear/fire events etc, possibility of release of toxic by-products.

Regulation / Standards

Restriction of certain halogenated FRs under POPs conventions, EU REACH frameworks.
Industry norms: specify low-smoke, low-toxicity FR systems, avoid heavy-metal FRs.

Implications for Textile Technologists

Evaluate necessity and risk of FR treatment: for consumer textiles, are alternatives possible (e.g., inherently flame-resistant fibres)?
Choose newer FR systems with lower hazard profiles.
Ensure product labels/disposal guidance reflect FR chemistry.

3.6 Solvent-Carriers, Auxiliary Chemicals & Micro-Contaminants

Use in Textiles

Solvents, carrier agents for dyeing/finishing (e.g., chlorinated benzenes), surfactants, micro-contaminants (MCs) and micro-plastics (MPs) are ubiquitous. A 2025 review by RSC (2025) on micro-contaminants and micro-plastics showed more than 500 chemicals from textiles in wastewater streams. RSC Publishing

Hazard Mechanisms

Some carrier solvents are volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with liver, thyroid or neurological toxicity.
Micro-contaminants (e.g., alkylphenols, organophosphate esters) may exceed Predicted No-Effect Concentrations (PNECs) in surface waters.
Micro-plastics (fibres, coatings) add mechanical/chemical risk vectors (adsorbing chemicals, being ingested by aquatic biota).

Regulation / Standards

Increasing attention to micro-plastics regulation (EU micro-plastics strategy).
Textile chemical restriction lists (RSLs/MRSLs) often include certain carrier solvents, surfactants, alkylphenols.

Implications for Textile Technologists

Evaluate use of solvents and carriers: switch to water-based or low-VOC systems where possible.
Consider micro-fibre shedding, product durability, and end-of-life implications (recycling, wastewater).
Include monitoring of auxiliary chemical release in wastewater treatment metrics.

4. Comparative Summary Table

Substance Class	Key Textile Uses	Major Hazards	Industry/Regulatory Trend
Heavy Metals (Cr, Cd, Pb, As, Cu…)	Metal-complex dyes, mordants, finishes, trims	Carcinogenicity, neuro/renal toxicity, environmental persistence	Stricter product limits (extractable metals), effluent controls
Azo Dyes / Aromatic Amines	Dyestuffs, printing inks	Release of carcinogenic amines, persistent residues	EU bans, analytical standards for amines
Phthalates (Plasticisers)	PVC trims, plastisol prints, laminates	Endocrine disruption, migration/leaching	Phthalate restrictions, RSL inclusion
PFAS (Water/Oil Repellents)	Finishes, outdoor fabrics, upholstery	Persistent ‘forever’ chemicals, bio-accumulation, liver/immune effects	Phase-out initiatives, consumer demand for PFAS-free finishes
Biocides / Antimicrobials	Sportswear, upholstery, hygiene fabrics	Ecotoxicity, antimicrobial-resistance, dermal exposure	Demand for safer alternatives, increased regulation
Flame-Retardants (halogen/metal-based)	Protective textiles, upholstery	POPs, neuro/endo-toxicity, heavy-metal content	Shift toward low-hazard FR chemistries
Solvent Carriers / Micro-contaminants	Dyeing/finishing auxiliaries, coatings	VOCs, micro-plastics, release to aquatic ecosystems	Emerging regulation of micro-plastics, focus on auxiliary chemicals

5. Integrative Discussion: Value-Chain Implications & Strategies

For a textile technologist with decades of experience, this integrated hazard-overview suggests several strategic insights:

Upstream decision-making sets downstream risk: The choice of fibre, dye, finish or auxiliary at the factory gate influences not only product performance but also chemical-exposure risk, treatment burden, recyclability and brand liability.
Process design for minimal hazard: Efforts to reduce chemical load (exhaustion, reuse, closed-loop systems, less salt/auxiliaries) benefit not only cost but hazard exposure (less residual heavy metals, fewer migrating substances, fewer persistent finishes).
Product use & end-of-life matter: Many hazard pathways (e.g., PFAS release during washing, antimicrobial release, heavy metal migration in use) occur during product life-span or post-consumer phase. Circular-economy planning demands hazard-lite chemistry to enable safe reuse.
Monitoring, documentation & supply-chain transparency: Comprehensive testing (extractable metal, migration/leachability, finishing chemical content), supplier documentation, restricted-substance check-lists (RSLs/MRSLs) are key. The review by Rovira et al. (2025) emphasises gaps in regulatory frameworks for textile chemical mixtures. PubMed
Lifecycle thinking & holistic hazard-management: Instead of treating each hazardous substance class in isolation, adopting a unified framework that covers selection, processing, effluent treatment, product use and disposal is more sustainable.
Innovation opportunity: Many alternative chemistry approaches (metal-free dyes, PFAS-free finishes, bio-mordants, low-VOC carriers) are maturing. Early adoption can create competitive advantage.
Regulatory and brand pressure are increasing: Consumers, brands and regulators are converging on chemical-safety demands. Pre-emptive action is less costly than reactive.
Clusters and environmental load-management: Especially in high-volume textile clusters (India, Bangladesh), heavy metals, micro-contaminants, persistent finishes combine to place cumulative burden on local ecosystems. Effluent treatment upgrades and zero-discharge loops become strategic.

6. Conclusion

The textile sector’s chemical footprint is multi-dimensional: heavy metals, azo dyes, plasticisers, PFAS, antimicrobials, flame-retardants, carriers and micro-contaminants all contribute to hazard profiles that span human health, environment and product safety. While heavy metals remain a foundational concern, modern sustainability and chemical-management strategy must embrace the broader array of hazardous classes.

For textile technologists, researchers, policy-makers and sustainability practitioners, the message is clear: Chemical risk cannot be delegated solely to a downstream “effluent-treatment box” or a compliance chart. It must be embedded in material choice, process design, product specification, supply-chain documentation, and end-of-life planning. The textile chain that anticipates and mitigates these risks will be better placed—technically, commercially and ethically.

References

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Gupta, B. G. (2025). Heavy metal contamination from textile wastewater and its health impacts. PMC. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12343934/ PubMed Central
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